Torres's Model of Hispanic Identity Development Summarized by Kirsten Levine

Summary of Theory

Vasti Torres identified the importance of recognizing the correlation of ethnic identity and acculturation among Hispanic college students.  Torres published her first study of Hispanic Identity Development Theory in 1999, and expanded upon her research with her published longitudinal study in 2003.

According to Torres (2003), “[a]cculturation looks at the choices made about the majority culture, whereas ethnic identity looks at the maintenance of the culture of origin” (p.  533-534). While Torres did not look at the explanation of the process involved in choosing a cultural orientation, she considered the construct of cultural orientation (Torres, 2003).  The cultural orientation of Hispanic college students were analyzed through the Bicultural Orientation Model (BOM).

After extensive questionnaires and interviews Torres could identify a Hispanic student’s orientation preference.

·         Bicultural Orientation – a preference to function competently in both the Hispanic and  Anglo cultures.

·         Anglo Orientation – a preference to function within the Anglo culture.

·         Hispanic Orientation – a preference to function within the Hispanic culture.

·         Marginal Orientation – unable to function adequately within the Hispanic or Anglo cultures.

Torres’s longitudinal study identified two major categories of Hispanic Identity Development: Situation Identity and Influences on Change in identity development.  Torres recognized how the influences of where they grew up, generational status, and self-perception of societal status played a role in situating the identity of Latino college students, and how these students perceived their culture and environment.

Use in Higher Education

The significant increase in the Hispanic population identifies the need for higher education administrators to prepare for this shift in demographics.  There are two educational issues that must drive administrators to identify the needs of their Hispanic student population.  Hispanic students have the highest high school dropout rate of any group; and Hispanic students have a low college graduation rate.  To serve all Hispanic/Latino students it is important for student affairs practitioners to understand how cultural factors will affect the experiences of this population. 

Annotated Bibliography

Magolda, M. B., Torres, V. (2004). Reconstructing Latino identity: The influence of cognitive development on the ethnic identity process of Latino students. Journal of College Student Development, 45(3), 333-347.

Baxter Magolda and Torres conducted a qualitative longitudinal study, published in 2004, which addressed how ethnic identity is influenced by Latino college student’s cognitive development.  The goal of this study was to expand upon Torres’s previous research, while identifying the root of negative messages about ethnicity and reconstruct these negative images into positive images.  Participants were able to move away from a negative way of thinking.  The points of movement during the interview process were prompted by the reconstruction of knowledge and the Latino college student’s ability to integrate this new way of thinking into a holistic sense of self. 

References

Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F., Patton, L.D., & Renn, K.A. (2010). Student development in college: Theory, research, and practice. 2^nd Edition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Magolda, M. B., Torres, V. (2004). Reconstructing Latino identity: The influence of cognitive development on the ethnic identity process of Latino students. Journal of College Student Development, 45(3), 333-347.

Torres, V. (2003).  Validation of a bicultural orientation model for Hispanic college students.  Journal of College Student Development, 40(3), 285-298.

Torres, V. (1999). Influences on ethnic identity development of Latino college students in the first two years of college.  Journal of College Student Development, 44 (4), 532-547.

Helm's Model of White Identity Development Written By Jennifer Wozab

Overview of Theory

Helms introduced her psychosocial White Racial Identity Theory in 1990 to “raise the awareness of white people about their role in creating and maintaining a racist society and the need for them to act responsibly by dismantling it” (Helms, 1992, p. 61).  Helms developed the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (WRIAS) inventory to measure identity development and determined that the “evolution of a positive White racial identity consists of two processes, the abandonment of racism and the development of a non-racist White identity” (Helms, 1990, p. 50).  

The White Racial Identity Model involves six sequential stages: 1) Contact, an obliviousness to own racial identity; 2) Disintegration, first acknowledgment of white identity; 3) Reintegration, accepts the belief that White is superior and non-White is inferior and questions own racial identity; 4) Psuedo-Independent, intellectualized acceptance of own and others’ race; 5) Immersion/Emmersion, an honest appraisal of racism and significance of Whiteness; and 6) Autonomy, internalizes a multi-cultural identity with non-racist Whiteness as its core.

As the development process moves through the first three stages, the individual moves from obliviousness to consciousness of his or her white race and has a greater acknowledgement for whiteness and its role in society. Moving through these first three stages, the individual moves towards the abandonment of racism. The final three stages the individual is developing a non-racist White identity and understands what it means to be white, to take ownership of racial power and privilege and how it affects others, and work towards abandoning white privilege. This is the development stages where individuals can be “white without also being bad, evil or racist” (Helms, 1992, p. 61).

Use in Higher Education

White privilege and power is an important social construct in higher education. It is white supremacy that has created many barriers to success for minority students at an institutional, cultural, and societal level. More training and discussion must occur on college campuses with faculty, administrators, staff and students on white racial identity development. White individuals aware of their race and privilege can use it in a positive way to advocate and support students of color, which can include easier access to education for underserved populations, recruiting more diverse faculty, and creating more equitable policies and practices.

Annotated Bibliography

Miville, M. L., Darlington, P., & Whitlock, B. (2005, March/‌April). Integrating identities: The relationships of racial, gender, and ego identities among white college students. Journal of College Student Development, 46(2), 157-175. doi:10.1353/‌csd.2005.0020

The authors examine quantitative data from 300 White students (175 women and 125 men) to propose that racial and gender identities are related to ego identities. Participants completed the White Identity Racial Attitude Scale, Womanist Identity Attitude Scale or Men’s Identity Attitude Scale, and the Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status. The authors suggest that the stages of gender and racial identity can predict the stages of identity development. For men and women who have a positive self concept (Achievement) it can predict a positive relation of gender (Internalization) and racial (Autonomy) development.  Participants exploring gender identity conflicts (Disintegration/‌Reintegration or Diffusion) could predict an ego identity crisis (Moratorium). Interestingly, participants demonstrating no consciousness of race (Contact) still resulted in a positive ego identity (Achievement).

References

Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F. M., Patton, L. D., & Renn, K. A. (2010). Racial identity development. In Student development in college: Theory, research and practice (2nd ed., pp. 260-261). Jossey-Bass.

Helms, J. E. (1990). Toward a Model of White Racial Identity Development. In Black and white racial identity: Theory, research and practice (pp. 49-66). New York: Greenwood Press.

Helms, J. E. (1992). A race is a nice thing to have: A guide to being a white person or understanding the white persons in your life. Topeka, Kansas: Content Communications.

Miville, M. L., Darlington, P., & Whitlock, B. (2005, March/‌April). Integrating identities: The relationships of racial, gender, and ego identities among white college students. Journal of College Student Development, 46(2), 157-175. doi:10.1353/‌csd.2005.0020

Rowe, Bennett, and Atkinson's White Racial Consciousness Model Written by Tom Hurtado

Summary of Theory

Rowe, Bennett, and Atkinson had 4 concerns with Helm’s White Racial Identity Theory. First, they felt identity does not occur in parallel with Whites but develops differently for all groups.  Second, Helm’s concept of linear identity progression was problematic.  Third, Helm’s theory was misnamed because the focus was racial awareness not identity development.  Finally, Helm’s theoretical basis was limited to a Black and White framework.

Proposing an alternative White racial consciousness model, Rowe et. al focus on understanding Whiteness and the resulting implications on other racial groups.  Various attitudes are explored in two categories: unachieved and achieved racial consciousness.  The authors propose that using attitude types increases understanding of development processes and improves assessment. 

Unachieved racial consciousness consists of three attitude types.  The avoidant type dismisses race.  The dependent type relies on others to formulate racial opinions. Lastly, the dissonant type is in a state of confusion about race.

Achieved white racial consciousness consists of four attitude types.  The dominative manifests racial superiority.  The conflictive objects to outright racism but opposes any action used to minimize acts of discrimination.  Third, the reactive type acknowledges that other groups have been the recipients of injustice in society and responds to these inequities.  Lastly, the integrative type uses an understanding approach to the intricacies of racial issues while fostering practical social change.

Rowe et. al emphasize mobility between attitude types includes dissonance and resolve.  They also claim the model is not linear but an ongoing process occurring experience by experience never reaching self-actualization.  

Application to Higher Education

As discussed by Mueller and Pope, there is a lack of diversity in higher education administration and a need for student affairs professionals to do more than intellectualize racial issues.  White racial consciousness promotes commitment to an internal and ongoing process of racial/ethnic awareness.   At the heart of this discussion is developing the ability to incorporate an internal process of awareness in conjunction with external efforts.  By committing to this process, we can better assess and improve our interactions with each student as well as enhance their development process. 

Annotated Bibliography

Mueller, J. A., & Pope, R. L. (2001, March). The relationship between multicultural competence and white racial consciousness among student affairs practitioners. Journal of College Student Development , 42(2), 133-144.

Mueller and Pope conducted research to find a correlation between multicultural awareness and White racial consciousness.  The authors used two self-reported measures to assess multicultural competence and white racial consciousness.  534 White student affairs practitioners with various backgrounds from 60 institutions across the US were sampled.  The data indicates that there is a correlation between White racial consciousness attitude types and multicultural awareness.  The authors concluded that although there is a lack of diversity in the student affairs profession, increasing multicultural awareness framed in White racial consciousness can make professional s more effective. 

References

Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F. M., Patton, L. D., & Renn, K. A. (2010). Student development in college: Theory research and practice (2^nd ed., pp. 252-270). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Mueller, J. A., & Pope, R. L. (2001, March). The relationship between multicultural competence and white racial consciousness among student affairs practitioners. Journal of College Student Development , 42(2), 133-144.

Rowe, W., Bennett, S. K., & Atkinson, D. R. (1994, January). White racial identity models: a critique and alternative proposal. The Counseling Psychologist , 22(1), 129-146.

Ferdman and Gallegos Model of Latino Identity Development Written by Kathleen Covington

 Theory Overview

Ferdman and Gallegos (2001) Latino identity development and discuss (a) how Latino is used as an umbrella term to identify similar looking cultural groups and people of mixed heritage and (b) suggest Latinos develop orientations or lenses based on experiences with social institutions including the family, education system, peer groups and U.S. cultural racial constructs etc. These lenses include:

(a) Latino Integrated, understanding of racial constructs and ability to challenge them,

(b) Latino Identified, acceptance of the races Latino and White and identification with Latino,

(c) Subgroup Identified, identification of multiple Latino races and identification with a regional subgroup,

(d) Latino as Other, identification as a generic Latino due to mixed heritage,

(e) Undifferentiated, colorblindness, adherence to dominant culture, and tendency to attribute failure to the individual rather then racial constructs, and

(f) White Identified, acceptance of White and Latino races and identification with  White and rejection of Latino.

This theory does not discuss whether a person may have elements of multiple orientations, movement between orientations or the influence of other key external variables such as threats, violence, the use of the term Latino or language ability. We also do not know the strengths associated with each orientation, how orientations influence institutional participation or one’s role within the institution or broad indicators distinguishing people of different orientations. Ferdman and Gallagos do recognize the need to findout “what factors lead to each orientation [and h]ow the specific socialization contexts or life experiences relate to individual orientations.” They also address the need to validate their model through research.

Use in Higher Education

This theory can be used to understand student socialization, how aspirations are constructed and why students have diverse goals. Advisors can use it to offer suggestions for student development opportunities including classes, clubs and student groups, possible positive experiences, and avenues to raise social justice awareness, social consciousness and social change. It can also be used to develop and assess policy and programs including diversity programs, intercultural understanding initiatives, inclusionary community building, fraternity and sorority management, development of safe spaces and anti-discrimination initiatives. Practitioners can recognize the need for safe inclusionary communities which embrace diversity or intercultural interaction make efforts to eliminate discrimination or offensive terminology including inappropriate racial constructs.

Annotated Bibliography Entry

Evans, Forney, Giudo, Patton and Renn (1985).  Student  development in college:

Theory research and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Evans, Forney, Giudo, Patton and Renn (1985) sought to determine if Latino frats can influence the creation of positive Latino identities. They collected ethnographic data to identify common agents of socialization. Those identified were families, school, peers, government policies, gender and language constructs etc. These contribute to positive or negative identity formation through a) exposure to social agents, b) positive or negative third party perception of race and ethnicity and c) individual assessment of third party perception. They do not mention how perceptions are cognitively developed and concluded that Latino frats provide an environment for cultural celebration, exposure to language, positive ethnic and racial experiences and, thus, cultural appreciation. Positive experience was also influenced by attendance at a Hispanic Serving Institution, the test population was all male, there were only seven frat members and though participants identified their identity orientations according to Ferdman and Gallegos, no real attempt was made to connect experiences with these orientations. Ultimately, Evans and Guardia support the belief that positive or negative racial or ethnic experiences with agents of socialization can affirm or disaffirm ethnic or racial identities. They also found students identified with multiple lenses.

References

Evans, Forney, Giudo, Patton and Renn (1985).  Student  development in college:

Theory research and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Ferdman, B. M., & Gallegos, P. I. (2001). Racial identity development and Latinos in the

United States. In C. L. Wijeyesinghe & B. W. Jackson, III (Eds.), New perspectives on Racial Identity Development: A theoretical and practical anthology (pp. 32-66). New York: New York University Press.

Guardia, J., & Evans, N. (2008). Factors influencing the ethnic identity development of

Latino fraternity members at a Hispanic Serving Institution. Journal of College Student Development, 49(3), 163-181. Retrieved from ERIC database.

Schlossberg's Theory of Transition Written by Bobbi Davis

Explaining theory in my own words:

Dr. Nancy Schlossberg’s Theory of Transition is a psychosocial model of development that examines life events which affect various aspects of an individual’s life and their societal roles.  The person’s perception of the transition is as important to understanding how a person is affected by his/her changing life events as much as the type, context and impact of the transition itself.  Types of transitions include anticipated, unanticipated, event, non-event and chronic or “hassles”.  Anticipated transitions are those that are seen as occurring predictably in one’s lifetime, whereas unanticipated are just the opposite where the individual did not expect them to occur.  Those transitions that a person counted on to happen and did occur are called events.  A non-event is defined as a transition a person counted on to occur, but did not happen as hoped.  Chronic transitions are changes in one’s roles and routines that occur due to an anticipated, unanticipated, event or non-event transition.  Context of transition refers to the relationship the person has with the transition (i.e., personal, interpersonal, or community) and the setting where the transition occurs.  Impact would be assessed by understanding how much a person’s daily life has be altered.  Schlossberg outlined the transition process with the terms of “moving in”, “moving through” and “moving out”.  Methods for coping with transition, whether positive or negative, come from assessing a person’s assets and liabilities in the four areas which Schlossberg termed as the 4 S’s – situation, self, support and strategies. 

Example of how used in higher education:

The main use of Schlossberg’s transition theory is with adult learners and their return to higher education.  Compared to traditional students, non-tradition students are generally at many different points in their life due to the various types of transitions they have undergone.  Programming developed on the 4 S’s can help adult learners to recognize and draw upon their assets in coping with the perception of moving into the challenge of returning to school instead of only seeing what their limitation might be.  However, the entire transition process of moving in, moving through and moving on can be used as a guide in student affairs to facilitate all stages of college student development, not just adult learners, in how they interpret their college experiences and use that knowledge to further develop.

A.B.:

Rayle, A. (2007). Revisiting first-year college students’ mattering: Social support, academic stress, and the mattering experience. Journal of College Student Retention, 9(1), 21-37.

Using Schlossberg’s transition theory as a framework, Rayle investigated if any relationships existed between mattering to family and college friends and the degree to which students felt they mattered to the college community and level of academic stress for first-year college students.  Rayle administered three assessment measurements to 533 students enrolled in freshman level courses in the College of Education.  The researcher found that across the sample, social support from family and college friends significantly impacted mattering to the college community, as well as strongly predicated the level of academic stress students’ experienced.

References

Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F., Patton, L.D., & Renn, K.A. (2010). Student development in college: Theory, research, and practice. 2^nd Edition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schlossberg, N.K. (1984). Counseling adults in transition: Linking Practice with Theory.  New York, New York: Springer Publishing Company, Inc.

Schlossberg, N.K. (1989). Overwhelmed: Coping with life’s ups and downs. Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books.

Baxter Magolda’s Theory of Self Authorship Written by Anita Kiteau

Overview of Theory

Marcia Baxter Magolda began her study of this theory when she identified an important gap of gender in the existing work of Perry and Belenky. She saw the need to address gender in the study and to involve both men and women together. Magolda originally began her study in 1992 on the epistemological development of 101 Miami University students. She conducted an exclusive study on epistemological development and her work evolved over the last twenty years with an in-depth study of thirty nine students out of the 101 original participants.

Baxter Magolda identified three dimensions which answer the three simple questions that the individual questions during his or her journey toward self-authorship. These questions are: how do I know, who am I, and how do I want to construct relationships with others. The three dimensions of self-authorship are: a) epistemological which assists the individual to answer the “how do I know” part, b) intrapersonal where the individual finds answer to the question of “who am I” and lastly c) interpersonal, the individual comes to a strong sense of self and is able to master the “how do I want to construct relationships with others.” These dimensions are intertwined according to the experiences of the individual.



The Intersection of all circles is "Inner Voice"



There are four phases of self-authorship discovered by Baxter Magolda.  These are following formulas, crossroads, becoming the author of one’s life, and internal foundation. These phases are not linear however fundamentally, when the individual becomes the author of self, he or she is moving away from following external formulas to developing their inner voices and makes meaning of life based on their internal foundation. She concluded that participants were not identified as reaching self-authorship, however they left college with an initial awareness of self-authorship and continue to make meaning in their lives as they develop their inner voices. Baxter Magolda later introduced the Learning Partnership Model (LPM) with Patricia King to foster self-authorship development. The LPM creates environments between individuals and authorities that effectively promote self-authorship.

Use in Higher Education

Baxter Magolda argued that self authorship needs to be the basis for advance learning outcomes in college in order to effectively prepare students for this century. Self-authorship is being applied in college through interaction among students and educators and includes giving constructive instruction that allow for self reflection, clear interpretations of self beliefs, and active involvement in meaningful activities. Student Affairs develop self-authorship within resident halls, academic advising, career advising and professional student affairs staff. Self-authorship is critically reflected on the diverse population of students and their different experiences.

Annotated Bibliography Entry

Walczak, K.K. (2008). Utilizing self-authorship to understand the college admission process. Journal of College Admission, (198), 31-35

The author draws from the student development theories of self-authorship and orders of consciousness to understand first year, traditional-aged college students. This includes how they understand entry into college through the admission process before they actually develop self-authorship in college. The author examines the development of students as they approach the admission process in the following stages: following external formulas/durable categories, the crossroads/cross-categorical thinking and becoming author of own life/self-authorship. Students do not have a viewpoint of self at first and rely upon others such as authorities (parents and admissions personnel) to tell them exactly what to do. Secondly, students begin to constructively make sense of differences and build their own viewpoints but still do not understand how others’ views influence theirs. Lastly, students are able to separate their viewpoints from others and act upon their own ideas and beliefs. The study concludes with implications that admission counselors and authorities should facilitate the developmental transition of where a student is and where college personnel expect them to be.

References

Magolda, M.B. (2004).  Making their own way.  Sterling, VA:  Stylus.

Magolda, M.B. (2010). The interweaving of epistemological, intrapersonal, and interpersonal development in the evolution of self-authorship. In M.B. Magolda, E.F. Creamer and P.S. Meszaros (Eds.), Development and Assessment of Self-Authorship (pp. 25-43). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.

Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F., Patton, L.D., & Renn, K.A. (2010). Student development in college: Theory, research, and practice. 2^nd Edition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Walczak, K.K. (2008). Utilizing self-authorship to understand the college admission process. Journal of College Admission, (198), 31-35.

Faith Development Theory Written by Kylee Vanek

Summary of Theory

The Faith Development Theory was first developed by Sharon Dolaz Parks in 1986 and then expanded on and modified in 2000. To develop the theory, Parks drew heavily on the work of earlier theorists; Perry, Kegan & Gilligan and Fowler. Their theories dealing with cognitive development, interpersonal development and community are very evident in Parks’ work.

Faith as defined by Parks is, “the activity of seeking and discovering meaning in the most comprehensive dimensions of our experience” (Parks, p. 7).  Parks developed four periods associated with faith development: adolescent/conventional, young adult, tested adult, and mature adult. As individuals develop they have new ways of understanding, which Parks refers to as “forms of knowing.” These forms are authority-bound, unqualified relativism, probing commitment, tested commitment and conviction commitment.

Parks criticizes the importance American culture puts on independence, instead of focusing on inner dependence and the interconnectedness that all individuals share. Due to this critique, Parks discusses the different forms of dependence individuals experience and the forms of community that can empower them as they move towards a greater inner dependence. While not linear, these forms of dependency do allow for individuals to have an increasing awareness of their relationships with others. Individuals experience dependence/counter dependence, fragile inner dependence, confident inner dependence and eventually interdependence. In correlation the communities which individuals are involved in evolve, as well. Conventional communities, diffuse communities, mentoring communities, self-selected groups and open to the other are all communities that individuals may be a part of during their faith development. As individuals move through these communities it is important that these communities offer support and challenge to the individuals. 

Uses in Higher Education

The Faith Development Model is most applicable to higher education when it comes to faculty and staff members’ roles as mentors. The process of offering mentorships that balance both challenge and support to students is vital. This theory is also applicable in aiding students in developing their ability to question and develop their own truths. Higher education is a place for students to grow in their understanding of the academic world, but also in terms of their own self identities. Higher education must be a community that allows for questioning, reflection and a place to give voice to each person’s own beliefs.  

Annotated Bibliography

Watt, S.K. (2003). Come to the River: Using Spirituality to Cope, Resist, and Develop Identity. New Directions for Student Services,104, 29-40. doi:10.1002/55.105

Sherry Watt conducted a qualitative study in 1997 that looks at the experiences of African American college women to understand how they use faith to cope with negative stereotypes. This study involved 48 women among four focus-groups. Watt noted limitations with previous faith development theories including that of Parks. Four themes emerged from the study that reflected Parks’ importance of mentors including; Relation Are Our Teachers, Strong Women-Absent Men, Responsibility to Younger Siblings/Families and Important Relationships.  Watt provided valuable implications for the practice of student affairs based on the study focusing on holistic development, support and recognizing the value that spirituality has in individuals’ lives.

References

Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F. M., Patton, L. D., & Renn, K. A. (2010). Student development in college: Theory, research, and practice (2^nd ed., pp. 202-211). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Parks, S.D. (2000). Big questions, worthy dreams: Mentoring young adults in their search for meaning, purpose, and faith. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Watt, S.K. (2003). Come to the River: Using Spirituality to Cope, Resist, and Develop Identity. New Directions for Student Services,104, 29-40. doi:10.1002/55.105